Youth and Recreation Activity Resource Center
Activity and Resource Center
A Wilderness Camping Program
Chapter 7
Wilderness camping, incorporated into the local church program, can have several beneficial effects.
· First, wilderness camping is the most effective means of removing a person from the distractions of modern life which inhibit his personal contact with God.
· Second, wilderness camping allows persons to be themselves, to be honest and open with others, and to develop true friendships and understandings. Superficial attitudes (masks) are stripped away-usually by the third day on the trail.
· Third, wilderness camping reduces life to its basics-food, clothing, and shelter. This fact permits campers to have time to evaluate their lives and to discover priorities.
· Fourth, wilderness camping provides a person not only the opportunity to learn about the Christian life but also the opportunity to be Christian in attitude and life-style with others. Wilderness camping is a practical laboratory of life. It provides a place where "church" words like grace, forgiveness, trust, and love come alive in the interpersonal relationships of the campers.
The wilderness camping experience becomes a unique Christian experience, not by the trip and the camping activity, but by the Holy Spirit working through Christian leaders. Wilderness camping provides many opportunities for ministry to the campers. But the Christian leader must be prepared to recognize and use such teaching opportunities as campfire discussions, a colorful sunset or sunrise, a rainbow, a beautiful panorama of scenery, or a camper's habits which affect the group's progress or behavior.
This chapter is designed to help the wilderness camp leader adequately prepare for and successfully lead a wilderness camping trip. The leaders need to have the knowledge and skills which will help them adequately meet the needs and challenges of living in the wilderness.
Campcraft skill training meetings should be held prior to the trip. Do not take your group into the wilderness without adequate preparation in this skill area. The Royal Ambassador program has a series of campcraft awards which takes members progressively through the campcraft skills. This is an excellent program. If your church does not have a Royal Ambassador chapter, it should organize one. Such a program is necessary not only for mission training and mission education but also for training in the campcraft skills.
If your church does not have a properly trained wilderness camping leader, contact one of the following: the associational recreation director, state recreation consultant (Baptist convention headquarters), the state Royal Ambassador leader, the Brotherhood Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention, or the Church Recreation Department at the Sunday School Board. All of these persons or institutions are involved in training trail camping leaders.
Do not go camping in the wilderness without a properly trained leader.
Planning a Wilderness Camping Trip
This chapter does not provide an exhaustive treatment of wilderness camping and campcraft skills; it is simply a guide to the various areas of information and skills which you should master before attempting wilderness camping.
Establish Goals
First, consider a goal for this camping trip. Why are you going? The goal for your camping trip will determine how you plan the trip. Is it to be a leisure trip? If so, gauge your time and distance carefully for each day to avoid stress and exhaustion. You might wish to establish a base camp and make day trips with a light pack out of this base camp.
If your wilderness camping trip goal is educational, involve a naturalist as an instructor. Add to your equipment list field manuals in various earth sciences. Plan an educational trip that crosses an area of interesting geographical formations or other natural phenomena.
If the trip is to involve a lengthy study of the Bible, plan to set up an early camp each day in order to get the camp chores done. Then the group may spend adequate time in Bible study. Some groups may want to do their Bible study in the mornings before breaking camp. However, the evening study is preferable. Regardless of when you schedule the study, never start a day without personal prayer and Bible study.
If the goal is personal development, consider factors such as time, distances, and weight of pack. These factors extend the limits of endurance, demand discipline, and increase camping skills.
Plan the Itinerary
The next step in planning a wilderness camping trip is to prepare an itinerary. Obtain topographical maps of the area where you plan to go. These maps may be purchased from the U.S. Coastal and Geodetic Survey Office or from stores in your area which handle supplies for surveyors. Acquire the maps for your particular camping area and for the surround ing area so that you can determine alternate routes out of the wilderness if necessary. Acquire enough maps so that every camper will have a set of maps for his personal use. Study the maps very thoroughly. Plot your route on the map, and plot alternate courses. Or, select alternate trails for your group if the terrain seems too rough for their skills.
After plotting the trip, devise a plan which takes into account the amount of time the group plans to spend on the trail, the amount of food they will need to consume in that time, and the areas they will need to be in each day.
Before you can adequately plan to control a group's time, you need to know something about the physical condition of the group. A prerequisite should be a physical conditioning program for each of the prospective campers. Of course, a stress experience in the wilderness would require better physical conditioning than a leisurely pleasure trip. However, if the wilderness area is mountainous, even those on a pleasure trip will enjoy the trip more if their bodies are in good condition. One university which uses wilderness camping as a part of its curriculum will not allow anyone to participate in the wilderness camping program who cannot jog a nine-minute mile. You may be unable to control the physical conditioning of your group or to determine their physical conditioning before the trip begins. In this case, spend one or two days at the beginning of your wilderness adventure on easy terrain with relatively short daily trips. This procedure would be especially necessary if the group is from a lower section of the country, taking their wilderness trip at higher elevations. Allow them time to become acclimated.
If you find that you are not keeping your schedule at the end of the first day, recalculate your schedule and, if necessary, use alternate campsites. If you have left a time for search and rescue efforts, report any changes to the person in charge upon leaving the wilderness. Also, change your schedule and route as necessary to be sure you are out of the wilderness by that deadline.
In preparing your itinerary, consider techniques for conserving personal energy. Devise a plan for managing this vital resource. Analyze the distance to be traveled each day. Is it ascend ing or descending terrain? Is the trail rough or well-worn? Is the weather forecast good or bad? What are the average temperatures expected day and night? What pack weight will each participant be carrying? What are the ages and general physical condition of your campers? Calculate the trail distance for each day to avoid exhaustion.
To properly manage the energy of a group, you need to consider daily nutrition and proper clothing. Sleeping equipment also is important; a good night's rest is essential. Be sure campers have an adequate store of energy, through proper nutrition, before the trip begins. Be as sure as possible that campers are in good physical condition for the trip. Two other important factors in the proper management of energy are the pace for the trip set by the leader and the maintenance of a high level of oxygen in the blood through proper breathing.
Also plan for body comfort in the climate in which you expect to make your trip.
Knowing the type of weather that may be expected, knowing the weather forecast for the time of your trip, and making adequate preparation for protection from the weather at all times are essential tasks. At higher elevations-the Appalachian Trail and in the Rockies of the West-weather may change radically in a short time. A bright, sunny morning in the mountains may end with sleet and snow, blown by icy winds. Take clothing and equipment to meet all of the situations expected (and even some unexpected) along the wilderness trail. Be sure to ask the weather bureau for a long-range forecast the day you enter the wilderness. Ask them about the record high and low temperatures for the days of your trip. As an extra precaution, always prepare for worse weather than the bureau predicts.
With the proper clothing, one may have a pleasant trip in either winter or summer.
Get Needed Permissions
The next major step in preparing for your trip is to get permission from the proper [urisdtctional authority. Both the Bureau of Land Management and the National Park Service are divisions of the Department of Interior. If you plan to camp in one of the national parks or in property which is under their control, you need to contact the superintendent of the area where you plan to camp. A brochure entitled Camping: In the National Park System is available from the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (25 cents). It contains the addresses of the superintendents of America's national parks.
In your letter to this superintendent, include a request for full information on the campgrounds and back-country trails. Ask if open fires are permitted. You might also ask if reservations are required. The superintendent would like to know what agency is sponsoring your trip and how many will be in your party. Due to the increasing number of requests for use of the wilderness, some park superintendents are putting restrictions on the size of the group admitted to the area and the length of time they are permitted to stay.
Addresses for the Bureau of Land Management and the National Park Service are found in Appendix B of this book.
The National Forest Service is a part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The address for this jurisdictional authority also is found in Appendix B. The national forest lands and the wilderness areas which they encompass are excellent areas for wilderness camping. The first step is to write a letter to the National Forest Service in Washington, D.C., requesting the name and address of the forest ranger in charge of the area where you hope to go camping. When you obtain this information, you should write the forest ranger, giving the same information that you would give to a superintendent of a national park.
If you would like to make a trip in an area where private ownership of land is a problem, contact the tax office in courthouses of the counties involved. This source can supply you with land ownership information. Contact the owner of the land and explain your trip. Be sure to include information about the sponsoring agency, the group leader, and the approximate dates you would be on his property. It might be helpful to include insurance information, since liability is one of the major concerns of the land owner when other people are on his property. If you do not have permission to cross a fence and enter another person's property, do not go. Christian leaders must be good examples to those whom they lead by respecting personal property rights and keeping the laws.
Take Health and Safety Precautions
After you have planned your trip and received permission to use the area, consider the health and safety of your group. No group should ever enter the wilderness without a person who has at least a standard first aid card or its equivalent. This person also should have information and experience regarding the types of injuries and illnesses usually associated with this type of camping. Burns, bruises, lacerations, blistered feet, and broken bones are injuries one usually associates with wilderness camping. The person in charge of the first aid should be familiar with the emergency medical procedures for the following problems:
1. Fatigue and the accompanying loss of appetite, vomiting, chills, and general weakness.
2. Stomach and bowel upsets.
3. Mountain sickness and its accompanying nausea, dizziness, and vomiting.
4. Pulmonary edema (similar to mountain sickness, but with the additional problem of the lungs filling with fluids).
5. Hypothermia and its accompanying symptoms of shivering, difficulty in speaking, loss of judgment, and eventual coma.
6. Frostbite.
7. Shock.
8. Various types of fractures.
As a safety factor, bring two people trained in first aid on your expedition. If one of the first aiders is injured, another one can care for him and the rest of the group.
The leader of the wilderness camping trip, and whoever is assisting as the first aider, should be familiar with the procedures in an emergency. For instance, when is evacuation of the injured camper advised? How is evacuation accomplished, and who should be contacted to activate an emergency rescue unit?
The sheriff of the county in which you are located normally activates the rescue squad. However, some states depend on the highway patrol to be the contact agency. Before venturing into an area on a wilderness strip, ask a local law enforcement officer whom to contact. Evacuation would be necessary in the case of broken bones, frostbite, pulmonary edema, appendicitis, second and third degree burns, and diseases resulting in high fever. Evacuation may be accomplished by dividing the sick or injured person's pack load among the other trip members and allowing the person to walk out if he is able. If he is unable to walk, he must be carried. Construct a makeshift stretcher from poles and pack frames. If you see that the person is badly injured or is too sick to be moved in this fashion, send a team of two or three with light packs to the nearest point of communication with civilization. Let them carry detailed written instructions with them. The person in authority activates the emergency unit; he usually will decide whether to use a land vehicle, horses, or aircraft. If aircraft is used, the cost of the flight usually is borne by the person who needs the service or by the agency sponsoring the trip.
It is also necessary for you to have a signed medical release form for each camper with you on the trip. This form will enable you to get treatment for the person if he is a minor or if he is unconscious. It is a very tragic circumstance when a person has been evacuated, only to lie in the emergency room of a hospital untreated because his family cannot be located for permission.
Also have on file a physician's examination form and a med ical statement from each camper. Keep a record of inoculations with this record. Note any allergies or medical problems and keep the list available for reference in case of emergencies.
Make a disaster plan before the trip begins. Find out what natural disasters have occurred in the area to which you are going. Forest fires, tornadoes, violent thunderstorms, blizzards, earthquakes, and avalanches are examples of such disasters. Ask the local person in charge of the camping area what precautions should be made in case of a disaster. File a disaster plan with the jurisdictional authority and with the person who is to activate an emergency rescue plan if you do not return by a certain time. This process may seem a little melodramatic; but it is a comforting thought to know that you will be missed and help will be sent if you are having trouble.
Check with your insurance company to see if the church insurance policy covers you, or if additional insurance must be acquired. Explain in detail the activities of the trip and give all the information requested by the agent. The only way that you may be insured properly against any eventuality is to fully inform the agent about your trip activities so that he may insure them properly.
It is also helpful to have accident liability release forms (a waiver of responsibility) signed by each member of the group and by the parent or guardian of each member under eighteen years of age. This precaution does not give you permission to be negligent, but it may be helpful in court if a suit develops over some occurrence on your camping trip.
Before each trip have on file a signed trip participation permit from the parent or guardian of each minor. No child should be allowed on the trip without parental permission. The group should carry a first aid kit adapted to the needs of the particular trip. Consider the number of people going, the terrain over which the trip will be made, and any special physical needs of those on the trip. Carry one large kit for the group. If you break the group down into smaller groups or squads for traveling on the trail, send a smaller first aid kit with each of the squads. The person with the large first aid kit should travel with the last squad.
It is extremely important to consider the weather on your trip. Some campers will attempt a wilderness trip after making detailed, extensive plans. But, if they neglect to study the weather forecast, they may be in for a miserable trip. The weather bureau's extensive records and sophisticated, modern equipment enable them to accurately forecast weather for an area. As mentioned earlier, it is important to know the record high and low temperatures for your area and the normal amount of precipitation during the period of your trip. If you are in mountainous or hilly country, you may expect the weather to be worse than forecasted. Assuming this attitude will enable you to prepare adequately for the weather. The person in charge of weather forecasts in the selected camping area will be a good source for weather information. .
Even the Scriptures give us information about forecasting the weather. In Matthew 16:2-3 (TLB) Jesus said, "You are good at reading the weather signs of the skies-red sky tonight means fair weather tomorrow; red sky in the morning means foul weather all day-but you can't read the obvious signs of the times!"
In some areas of the country, thunderstorms form with such regularity in the afternoon hours that a person may almost set his watch by them. Know the weather signs which occur in your area. This is very important.
When bad weather is on the way, make preparations for it. Do not wait until the storm strikes to pitch your tents and make camp. It is better to make camp early a few times and be wrong than to try to stretch the trip with bad weather approaching. You may end the day trying to make camp in blowing winds and rain or hail.
Select Proper Equipment
Select proper equipment for the wilderness trip. Usually, some of the campers will have some equipment which they have used in private camping. This equipment may be good, and it can save on expenses in preparing for the trip. But the equipment also may be very bad, and it can fail on the trail. Low-cost equipment is not always a bargain. And, just because the equipment has "backpack" written across it in embroidered letters does not mean that it will hold substantial loads for long distances. It may disintegrate enroute. Equipment failure can be very disruptive to the trip and very dangerous to you. However, just because an item is expensive does not necessarily mean that it is quality merchandise. It may not meet your needs under stress conditions.
Clothing is an example of the foregoing statements. Stores, from the gigantic department store to the tiniest camping shop, will have clothing advertised to meet your needs on a camping trip. The inexpensive types might have poorly sewn seams, or the quality of the material might be so bad that it begins to come apart on the trail under strain and wear. Some of the clothing might be too expensive. This may be high quality merchandise, and it may do an excellent job on the trail. But why waste money on expensive clothes if you can get inexpensive clothes that will do an equally adequate job? One good source of strong quality clothing, adequate for camping needs, is the GI surplus store.
Footwear
Good footwear is an essential for the wilderness ~amper carrying heavy loads. Any type of footwear with a soft, flexible, or thin sole is not suited for hiking. Such shoes may be worn around the campfire in the evening. Boots with a stiff sole are good for climbing because they offer protection from sharp rocks and rough ground. But these boots will be uncomfortable on long hikes. The wilderness camper needs a boot which will support his feet under heavy pack loads and yet be comfortable for walking. The best sole for this dual purpose is the Vibram Lug sole. These soles are cleated for traction and are semiflexible for walking comfort. They also are tough enough to keep sharp stones and irregular terrain from hurting your feet. Hunter's boots or field boots are a compromise between the soft sole shoe and the hiking boot. Under moderate pack loads over fairly easy terrain, these boots might be OK. But, they generally will cause sore feet on a long hike under a heavy pack. Most hunters' or field boots come with a high top. This high top prevents ventilation to the feet and usually is necessary only where there is a snake menace.
Boots with a smooth leather exterior usually will have the rough leather and seams on the inside-unless the boot is lined. If the boot appears rough and has the flesh side of the leather on the exterior, the smooth side of the leather usually is on the inside. The latter boot usually provides the most foot comfort.
You should purchase a high quality boot (these are rather expensive) since the condition of your feet will determine whether or not you enjoy the wilderness experience. In purchasing your boots, secure a pair with a low top which will protect your ankle but not bind it. The boot 'should be of sufficient size to allow you to wear two pairs of socks at the same time. Usually heavy wool socks are worn-one long pair under a short top pair. These socks require a good bit of extra room. You should take two pairs of socks with you when you go to tryon and purchase your boots. A boot which is slightly loose will cause fewer foot problems than one which is very tight. The tight boot retards circulation and it will permit frostbite to occur sooner. After you put the boot on over the socks, kick it against a wall and see if your toes will bump the end of the boot. If the toes do touch the end of the boot, the boot is not large enough. The next step in assuring a good fit is to place your foot flat on the floor and lean forward. The heel cup of the boot should grip your heel in a secure fashion, not allowing it to slide up and down. If a boot does not pass this test, it could wear blisters on your heel as you walk.
After you have purchased your boots, break them in before the trip. There are two good ways of breaking in your boots. First, wear them around the house or on short hiking trips for several weeks. The perspiration from your feet will soften the leather enough for it to be shaped to your foot. Second, submerge the boots in water, remove them, and partially dry them. Then put them on with two pairs of socks and wear them until they are completely dry. The second method is the fastest, but it takes a great deal of courage to soak your expensive new boots in water.
If the boots are waterproofed, they will cause the feet to perspi re more. But, if the boots are not waterproofed, your feet will stay wet from water soaking through the leather. In waterproofing your boots, use a wax or silicone treatment similar to a paste wax. Do not use oil on your boots. Coat them with the waterproofing agent, rubbing it into the boot very well. Repeat the treatments from time to time.
If you are traveling in brushy country or terrain which is snow-covered, you will find leggings or gaiters a handy addition to your equipment. These lace around the boots and ankles and prevent loose Objects from getting down inside your boots and chafing your feet.
Since campers wear two pairs of wool socks with the boots each day, they should take four pairs of wool socks with them on the expedition. This allows for a change. Wash two pairs each day. If wool socks chafe or irritate your skin, simply put a nylon stretch sock on first-next to your skin-then put the wool on over it. Wool has a unique ability to conduct moisture away from the skin. This fact means that your feet will be drier and more comfortable.
Underwear
Select underwear of natural fibers. In extremely cold climates, wool underwear will provide the most comfort and insulative action. However, cotton underwear is best for anything other than extremely cold weather. Boxer-type shorts are recommended for both men and women in camping because they provide protection for the inner thighs and prevent chafing. This is especially true if the camper is wearing woolen trousers. Another plus factor is that cotton underwear is easily washed and dried.
Summer camping in mountainous areas means experiencing temperatures ranging from extremely hot to very cold. Therefore, take clothing to cover this temperature span. For the warm times of the day, wear a cotton shirt and cotton trousers or walking shorts. When the weather begins to cool, do not add layers of wool clothing over your cotton clothing. The cotton will trap the moisture next to your skin and cause chilling. The cottons you take, whether underwear, trousers, or shirts, should be non-white. When you wash your cottons at camp, you cannot bleach them white as you can at home. And even though the white cottons may be clean, they still will look dingy and gray.
The key word to camping comfort in cool weather is wool. Wool is a natural fiber, and it is a miracle fiber. It insulates, conducts moisture away from the body, and is fairly strong. Most necessary camping clothes may be found in GI surplus stores. In building your wardrobe, begin with wool long johns-if you can find them. If not, try to locate a soft or fairly lightweight wool sweater. Buy two of them, cut the torso from one, and stitch it to the bottom of the other so that you have a wool sweater which reaches below your hips. Add to this a pair of wool shorts. If you cannot find these in a store, make them. On top of the wool underwear add a wool shirt and a pair of wool trousers. You might purchase wool trousers from secondhand clothing stores. Also purchase a pair of wool knickers made especially for camping and hiking. Knickers cost much more than the secondhand wool trousers and offer no more comfort, just more style. As a last addition to your wool ward robe, put a heavy wool sweater on top of your wool shirt. This will give you two layers of wool on your legs and three layers of wool on your torso and arms.
This wardrobe will keep you warm in extremely cold temperatures, and you can shed layer after layer throughout the day as the sun warms the atmosphere. The wool wardrobe should include a wool watch cap or wool toboggan. This cap can be pulled down over your ears to afford you great protection. If your feet get cold in your sleeping bag at night, put on this wool watch cap and you will be amazed at the difference. A great deal of your body heat is lost at night through your head, and this loss causes chilling which affects the feet. Stop the heat loss by putting on your watch cap. And your feet will stay warm.
Headgear
The wilderness camper also will be exposed to very hot sun. The camper should wear a felt hat with a brim. The brim not only protects the camper from the sun but also sheds water.
Rainwear
Rain and wind make another addition to your wardrobe necessary. A parka may serve as a raincoat, and it also protects the camper against strong chilling winds. Also wear waterproof pants. However, these waterproof garments will not keep you dry from your own perspiration. Body moisture collects in your clothes. Removing the rain suit and finding the icy wind slicing through the moist clothes can be a chilling experience. This effect, however, is modified when you wear wool clothes because of the wool's ability to insulate even when wet. The parka should be a style which opens at the neck to allow moisture to escape.
Hand Protection
Personal clothing should include a pair of cotton gloves and a pair of woolen mittens or gloves. Mittens are the warmest because the fingers can "fellowship" with each other and share their warmth. Purchase these mittens at surplus outlets. Use a pair of cotton gloves when cooking, collecting firewood, or doing other rough work around the camp when hands will need protection. These gloves also serve as hot pads when working with the pots and pans at the campfire.
Sleeping Gear
After selecting proper clothing, you should examine various types of sleeping gear. A good night's rest is of prime importance. Sleeping bags stuffed with prime goose down have been highly recommended through the years. These bags do have excellent insulative qualities, but they have one serious shortcoming. When they become wet, they lose their insulative qual ities and are extremely hard to dry.
Some modern fibers now used in sleeping bags have excellent insulative qualities - when the bag is wet or dry - and are almost as light as goose down. The first of these fibers is Fiberfill II and Polargard. Down bags must be cleaned, but both of these man-made substances may be washed in a large, front-loading commercial washer or by hand in a bathtub. Be sure to purchase a bag which is rated for the temperatures you expect to encounter. These ratings, however, are somewhat deceptive since the clothes you wear in the bag will somewhat determine your level of comfort. Purchase a bag which fits you; one that is too large is a waste of space and pack weight. Avoid a sleeping bag which has a waterproof cover. If moisture cannot get in, body moisture cannot get out; the inside of the bag will become soggy and damp after awhile.
What you use under the sleeping bag will also determine the degree of comfort you enjoy. Some people prefer air mattresses. An air mattress is not a good insulator between your body and the ground; it will leak and collapse unless it is made of extremely heavy material. And a heavy air mattress will not be easy to pack. Occasionally, you will camp in an area with a lot of pine straw or spanish moss. These materials make good sleeping pads. But you may disturb the ecology of the area and pose a serious soil conservation threat by removing the protective ground cover. Various camp cots have been devised to improve the sleeping comfort of the camper. But anything which raises you from the ground and allows free air to circulate beneath you will remove body heat.
The best answer to date to the problem of finding an adequate camp mattress is the Ensolite pad. This pad, one-fourth to one-half inch thick, provides excellent insulation from the temperature of the soil. It contains a closed cell material which will not absorb moisture. The more or less firm cushion will allow you to sleep without being bothered by sharp projections (small rocks and rough ground).
Shelter
Shelter is the next major concern, and the selection here is almost endless. Large tents, small tents, I ig ht tents, heavy tents, tents with inside frames, tents with outside frames - on and on the list goes. Many people seem to be trying, but no one has succeeded in inventing the perfect tent. A sewn-in floor and an insect-proof, nylon screen front is advisable for areas where insects would be a problem.
The Paul Petzoldt Wilderness Equipment Company in Lander, Wyoming, constructs and sells a unique tent called the Baja tent. It has a waterproof floor; the sides and top are made of nylon mosquito netting, giving excellent bug protection; and the whole thing is covered by a waterproof nylon fly. This style gives you the advantage of ventilation like using the fly alone, but it also offers adequate bug protection. It also is lighter than the normal tent.
The Backpack
Now that we have discussed clothing, sleeping gear, and shelter, let's talk about something in which to carry all of this equipment. The backpack is the camper's suitcase. By putting a pack on his back, a man becomes half hiker and half pickup truck.
The selection and use of a pack frame and bag is extremely important to the camper. It must carry everything he will need for the duration of the trip, and it must endure the trip well. If a pack rips open, or if a pack frame breaks, the hiker will have to carry his equipment in his arms. This becomes an impossible situation.
Choose a metal frame which is formed to fit the camper's back. The frames come in sizes, and you should select the appropriate size. Some packs have joints connected by metallic or plastic expanding devices and screws; some are welded. The welded frame is the only type which can safely carry a heavy load and endure an extended wilderness trip.
The bag should be mounted to the frame with aluminum pins; the bag should not be tied to the frame by nylon straps. Padded shoulder straps should attach to the metal frame. The pack frame also should be equipped with a hip-padded belt. The frame should be long enough to allow a sleeping bag to be tied beneath the pack sack.
Many styles of pack sacks are available on the market. The one you select should have strong seams with double stitching. If the bag is separated into zipper compartments, it will not hold as much equipment. Select one which is open from top to bottom in one huge pocket, contains some outside zipper pockets in which to store gear needed on the trail, and has one zippered map pocket on the back. This type of bag allows for some separation of equipment, plus maximum capacity of storage. The side pockets on the pack should have rain flaps which cover the zipper when it is closed. These bags should be waterproof. If they are not, you may manufacture a pack cover with plastic sheeting and duct .tape. Beware of the pack frame and pack with all sorts of gadgets and gimmicks. If one of these should break on the trail, you would be in real trouble.
Group Gear
After you have selected the personal equipment, choose and parcel out group equipment for various members to carry. Consider thinking in terms of four. Plan group equipment and menus on this basis.
The shovel. - The first and foremost item of group gear is the shovel. It may be a simple garden trowel, a specially made small shovel for campers, or a heavier GI collapsible shovel. A shovel is used to dig the fire pit and sump hole, to dig the latrine, to extinguish fires, and to smooth out a tent site.
The ax. - A controversial piece of group equipment is the ax. Some ecologists shudder when they think of an ax being taken into the wilderness. Yet, other campers would not venture into the woods without one. Do not carry an ax on a camping trip unless you plan to use it in pioneer-type camping. In this camp you would construct a campsite and its furnishings out of natural materials or complete a conservation project. You really won't need an ax in wilderness camping unless you are in an area of burned timber where there is very little dead wood on the ground. You can gather by hand and break up wood for the average campfire for a four-person party. If you have a large, sharp pocketknife, you can get by without any problems. If you use.an ax, be sure that the cutting is done with discretion and that the trees which are removed will be an improvement to the stand of timber rather than a detriment. Remove only the dead wood, diseased tree, gnarled tree, or the weakest and smallest of a group of trees growing together.
First aid kit.- The first aid kit, mentioned earlier, also is a part of group gear.
Cooking equipment.-Cooking equipment is another aspect of group gear to be considered. If you select the nested aluminum camp cookware, bring one set per cook group of four. However, if you find that approach too expensive, equip a cook group of four with the following equipment: two Teflon skillets, two NO.1 0 cans, and two slightly smaller cans which would nest inside the No. 10 cans. Include two spatulas, two wooden spoons, four bowls for eating, four sets of eating utensils, four food bags (stuff sacks), four cloth bags to carry and protect the skillets and cans, two camp stoves, and two extra flasks of fuel.
Shelter.- The shelter may be broken down into groups of four by providing two rain flies and two ground cloths for each group of four.
Specialized Equipment.-Specialized equipment may be carried individually or shared with the group. For instance, if fishing is on the schedule, one person may carry a rod in an aluminum case and the other person would carry the reel and baits. If the group plans to do mountaineering, one person may carry a rope and another person the hardware. Similar divisions may be made for photographic equipment, books for study, and so forth.
Personal Supplies
The last items under equipment selection is supplies needed for each person. These supplies will vary from person to person, and each person should select supplies to fit his needs. It is advisable, however, to consider the weight, cost, and utility of your selections. For instance, instead of taking toothpaste, antacid, and medication for insect bites, take baking soda; it can fill all three needs.
Personal items may include:
1. Kitchen matches in waterproof container
2. Hand cream
3. Glacier cream
4. Suntan lotion
5. Pocketkn ife
6. Small towel
7. Comb
8. Biodegradable soap
9. Shaving Equipment
10. Baking soda
11. Toothbrush
12. Bandana
13. Toilet tissue
14. Insect repellant
15. Sanitary napkins
16. Small, personal emergency kit (small compass, waterproof matches, razor blade, string, halazone tablets, and police whistle)
17. Small metal mirror
18. Small flashlight
19. Household candle
20. Pint or quart bottle
21. Compass
22. Topographical maps
23. Note pad
24. Pencil
25. Ten feet of nylon cord
Provide Proper Foods
Just as clothing and shelter help to control the climate in which the hike is conducted, food helps to control, or manage, the energy of the hiker. Foods playa tremendously important part in the major joys in the wilderness. First, food satisfies the body's nutritional needs. Second, every time the camper eats he lightens the pack he is carrying. The normal consumption for a backpacker on a hilly or mountainous trail is two pounds of food per day, plus the water it takes to reconstitute this amount of freeze-dried food.
It is essential to know the nutritional needs of your group and the nutritional content of the food which they will be carrying. This knowledge will help you select your menu components. It is possible to buy prepackaged, freeze-dried meals from various trail food companies. This is the best approach for the person with little skill in cooking. To reconstitute most freeze-d ried meals, you simply add boiling water and stir. Or, you pour them into a pot of boiling water and stir. This process makes it possible to prepare a meal in thirty or forty minutes. The meal may include such items as beef stroganoff, shrimp creole with rice, or salisbury steak with mashed potatoes and creamed English peas. This method does have disadvantages. One disadvantage is the packaging. Some of the materials come in foil packages which cannot be burned in the fireplace. Therefore, these packages must be packed out. Another disadvantage is the lack of challenge and creativity. With prepackaged meals you are locked in on a set menu. Another disadvantage is the cost of these prepackaged meals. In most cases a prepackaged, freeze-dried meal will cost as much as similar meal in a restaurant.
An alternate method for stocking the camp kitchen is to take staple foods, spices, beverages, and so forth. In this approach you can devise your own menus for each day. This method offers you variety, economy, and creativity. And, this type of food provides excellent nutrition. You should plan for about 3,500 calories per day per camper actively engaged in wilderness camping. Draw your own personal list of foods for the trip from the following groups of staples.
1. Dairy products
• Powdered milk
• Cheddar cheese (whole or dried)
• Margarine
• Puddings (instant banana, chocolate, butterscotch, and so forth)
2. Grains, cereal, and mixes
• White rice (instant or old-fashioned)
• Brown rice (instant or old-fashioned)
• Pasta (spaghetti, macaroni, egg noodles)
• Biscuit mix
• Self-rising flour
• Cornmeal
• Oatmeal
• Wheat germ
• Cream of wheat
• Farina
• Cake mixes
• Whole wheat flour
• Raw whole bran
3. Dried fruits and nuts Almonds
• Apples
• Cashew nuts Coconut (shredded)
• Dates (whole, chopped, and sugared) Dried mixed fruit
• Apricots
• Peaches
• Popcorn
• Prunes
• Peanuts
• RaisinsSoybeans (roasted)
• Sunflower seeds
4. Beverages and Desserts
• Cocoa (instant with all ingredients added)
• Sweetened, flavored gelatin
• Brown sugar
• Honey
• Fruit crystals
• Coffee
• Tea
5. Spices, leavenings, and soup bases Beef base
• Chicken base
• Tomato base
• Baking powder
• Dry yeast
• Table salt
• Rock salt (ice cream salt)
• Black pepper
• Garlic powder
• Curry powder
• Chili powder
• Dry mustard
• Parsley flakes
• Cinnamon
• Nutmeg
• Oregano
• Baking powder
• Vinegar
• Corn oil
6. Meat and meat substitutes
• Textured vegetable protein (soybean) Bacon bits
• Ham bits
• Dried beans
• Freeze-dried hamburger meat
• Beef jerky
• Dried shrimp
7. Vegetables
• Freeze-dried peas
• Dehydrated vegetable mix
• Freeze-dried peppers
• Dried onions or onion flakes
• Instant potatoes
• Split peas
• Lentils
Since no glass, foil, or metal containers are allowed in most wilderness areas, all of this food will need to be repackaged. Repackaging has another benefit, too. You can get the food out of larger boxes and into smaller plastic bags. You may repackage the materials in zip-lock plastic bags or in the supermarket variety of plastic bags that come in a roll. Tie the top of the supermarket plastic bag in a loose knot to close it. If you wish to keep the recipe off of a box, cut the recipe out and drop it in the plastic bag with the materials. Be sure to label all of the ingredients with a grease pencil. If the ingredients are not labeled, you may use the wrong one. You can find special containers for honey, spices, and margarine in camping stores. Do not use plastic containers which may have held cosmetics or other such substances. It is best to use screw-top plastic containers made for this purpose. These are available at camping stores.
You may buy most of the food items on this list of foods at the local supermarket. You can save a great deal of expense. However, things like freeze-dried hamburger meat and some of the freeze-dried vegetables may be found only at camping stores.
Arrange for Transportation
The last element of pre-trip planning is to arrange for campers to be transported to the trail head and to be picked up after the trip and transported back to the base camp. You might like to schedule a banquet at the end of the wilderness experience.
Train the Campers
Now that you have planned the trip, you are ready to begin training your wilderness campers in trailing and hiking skills and in camping procedures.
How to Pack
The first step in hiking is knowing how to pack the backpack and frame. For hiking on the trail, load the backpack with the center of gravity high in the pack and close to your back. Pack clothing and other soft and light items at the bottom, and place the heavier items such as mountain climbing hardware near the top and close to the frame. Pack the rain parka in one of the outside pockets along with matches and compass. Pack the water bottle and trail lunch in another outside pocket which may be easily reached while walking. Place the sleeping bag and its stuff sack at the bottom of the pack, held in place by nylon straps. Place the food bag, one of the heavier items, on the top of the pack tied right at the frame.
How to Load the Pack
Once the backpack is ready to go, you must tackle the job of putting it on. The simplest way is to take hold of the pack by the frame and lift it up on your right knee, with the shoulder straps facing you. Hold it there with your left hand and slip your right arm through the right shoulder strap. Lift the pack with your right shoulder. As it rolls on your back, slip your left arm through the left shoulder strap. Then put the hip belt in place and fasten it. Carry the pack with most of the weight on the hips, with the shoulder straps merely helping to balance the load. As you hike along the trail, you might want to vary the position of the pack by loosening or tightening the hip belt and the shoulder strap. This change will give different sets of muscles a chance to rest as you go.
Do not remove the pack every time you stop to get your breath. This removal slows down the trip, and it is a very strenuous task. Only remove the pack and rest at designated break times.
When dismounting the pack, remove it from your left shoulder and reverse the process. Allow it to swing around to your right knee, then hold it with your left hand, slip your right arm out, and set it down gently. Do not bounce the pack on one corner of the frame as you set it on the ground, especially if it has a heavy load on it. The pack frame may be warped or broken. You may then take the pack by the shoulder straps or frame and move it to the nearest tree. There, you may open it and set up camp. If you do not bring the pack into your shelter because of limited room or the bear menace, cover it with some waterproof covering.
How to Breathe
One of the most important skills to be learned by the hiker is how to breathe. This may sound strange, but it is very important. If you are to manage your energy properly, you must learn how to breathe and walk. Many campers try to keep up a steady pace. As a result, they become fatigued because they get out of breath. The secret is to maintain a steady breath rate and vary the hiking speed according to the terrain. Normally, you may be walking and taking three steps to one breath. As you approach an incline and begin to start up, the steps may drop to two per breath. Then, as the climbing gets difficult and the incline becomes steeper, you may slow down to one step per breath. With this breathing rhythm and walking pace, you will be able to continue moving hour after hour without suffering fatigue or becoming breathless.
How to Walk
Walking also is very important. When you are climbing a steep incline, use the lock-knee step. To do this you simply straighten the leg you have stepped with and lock it back as you raise the other foot for the next step. During this split-second - when the knee is locked - the muscles will relax and prevent fatigue. If you climb a hill with your legs always bent, you put a tremendous strain on the leg muscles without giving them any time to relax. If you are walking up a very steep mountainside, turn your feet sideways so that the ankles will not be in a strain. This technique also will give you better balance. In walking around a mountainside, or traversing it, relax your ankles and allow your feet to fit flat on the ground even though the ground is at an angle. This technique will give you better footing and prevent a torqueing action on your foot.
How to Protect the Feet
Foot care also is very important. When you have a blowout on a tire, you simply put on the spare. When you walk on a wilderness camping trip and develop a blister or sore foot, you have no spare. You must either walk in pain or stay in one spot until you are well. Since the latter choice is not practical, you must take care of your feet to avoid walking on one that is hurting. Your campers should be trained to beware of "hot spots" on their feet. This is a pre-blister condition which develops with chafing. The group should stop, get out the moleskin, and try to help relieve the hot spot before it becomes a blister. Campers should wash the feet daily and apply foot powder. Give special medical attention to any rashes or swelling which develop on the feet.
How to Move on the Trail
The procedures for moving on the trail are:
1. Break the larger groups down into smaller groups or squads for traveling on the trail. No group should be smaller than three people; a foursome is preferred.
2. The lead person in each group is the navigator. He sets the course and breaks the trail. He also sets the pace for the group and handles the map and compass work.
3. The second man in the team travels four or five paces behind the navigator. His job is to select a smoother trail to either the right or the left of the navigator's course. Since the navigator is more concerned with direction than with trail conditions, the second in command may spend more time concentrating on finding the smoothest trail